Marcus Aurelius: Emperor and Philosopher

Podcast Transcript

In the second century, the Roman Empire was arguably at its peak.

The Empire was peaceful, trade was flourishing, and life was about as good as it could be in the 2nd century.

Much of this was due to a string of good emperors. The last of whom didn’t just run a good empire but left a legacy that is still influencing the world today.

Learn more about Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher emperor on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.

If you look at any list of the greatest Roman emperors, Marcus Aurelius may or may not be at the top of the list, but he almost certainly would be on anyone’s top five.

Unlike every other emperor, however, what makes Marcus Aurelius notable isn’t just his accomplishments as emperor. It is a legacy that still influences millions of people today.

The emperor we know as Marcus Aurelius was born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26, 121, in the city of Rome during the reign of Emperor Hadrian.

He came from a prominent family with connections to the imperial household. His father, Marcus Annius Verus III, died when Marcus was young, leading Emperor Hadrian to take notice of the boy. This imperial attention would shape his destiny.

Marcus received an exceptional education typical of Roman aristocracy but with unusual depth. He studied Latin and Greek literature, rhetoric, and mathematics, but what truly transformed him was his introduction to philosophy. As a young man, he encountered various philosophical traditions, including Platonism and Epicureanism, before finding his intellectual home in Stoicism.

His philosophical mentors played pivotal roles in his development. Diognetus introduced him to philosophical thinking; Junius Rusticus, whom Marcus later credited with shaping his character, introduced him to the works of Epictetus, the former slave turned Stoic philosopher whose ideas would profoundly influence Marcus throughout his life.

Marcus’s rise to imperial power wasn’t something he actively sought. Emperor Hadrian, having no biological heirs, adopted Antoninus Pius as his successor with the provision that Antoninus would, in turn, adopt both Marcus and Lucius Verus, the son of Hadrian’s first choice who had died. This arrangement created a clear succession plan spanning two generations.

In 138, when Marcus was only 17, Hadrian died, and Antoninus became emperor. Marcus was given the title Caesar, marking him as heir to the throne. During Antoninus’s reign, Marcus served an extraordinary apprenticeship in governance. For over two decades, he worked closely with Antoninus, learning the intricacies of imperial administration while continuing his philosophical studies.

If you remember back to my episode on the Five Good Emperors, this system of one Emperor adopting his successor was really the key to this period of Roman history and the Pax Romana.

In 145, Marcus married Antoninus’s daughter Faustina the Younger, further cementing his position. Their union, unlike many political marriages, appears to have been genuinely affectionate. They would have at least 13 children, though many died young—a personal tragedy that tested Marcus.

As an aside, I should note that Faustina was the only woman in Roman history to be the daughter, wife, and mother of an emperor.

When Antoninus Pius died in 161, Marcus took an unprecedented step. Though named as sole emperor, he insisted on sharing power with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus, creating the first co-emperorship in Roman history.

It is hard to stress just how radical of a move this was. The imperial throne was something that men killed and died for. In one case, Diddius Julianus spent a fortune to buy it.

Giving up part of his power was literally his first act as emperor. The Senate was prepared to declare Marcus the sole emperor, but he refused to take the position unless he was declared co-emperor with his adopted brother.

Marcus and Lucius assumed power on March 7, 161.

Despite the fact that they were officially co-emperors, Marcus was informally considered to be the senior emperor as he had more acutoritas than his brother.

His imperial name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus.

The first major crisis of their reign came almost immediately. Rome’s eastern provinces faced invasion from the Parthian Empire. While Marcus remained in Rome managing domestic affairs, Lucius Verus led the military campaign in the East. Though Verus was nominally in charge, capable generals like Avidius Cassius secured victory, expanding Roman territory in the region by 166.

As troops returned from the Parthian campaign, they unknowingly brought back something devastating—a pandemic later called the Antonine Plague, which was likely smallpox. The disease ravaged the empire for years, killing perhaps a quarter to a third of the population in affected areas. This demographic catastrophe strained resources, weakened military capacity, and disrupted economic life throughout the empire.

The thing that defined his reign was the Marcomannic Wars.

They represent one of the most significant military challenges faced by the Roman Empire from approximately 166 to 180. These conflicts weren’t a single war but rather a series of related campaigns against various Germanic and Sarmatian tribes along Rome’s Danube frontier.

The conflict began dramatically around 166-167 when a confederation of tribes, led by the Marcomanni and Quadi, broke through Roman defenses, crossed the Danube, and invaded Roman territory. This wasn’t merely a raid but a significant invasion, with tribal groups penetrating deeply into Roman provinces.

Climate change, population pressures, and the movement of more aggressive tribes like the Goths from the north and east pushed these tribes southward toward Roman territory. These tribes sought new lands and security within the empire’s borders. The devastating Antonine Plague and the deployment of legions to the eastern front weakened the Roman frontier along the Danube, and these tribes took advantage of the situation.

In one of the most shocking developments, some Germanic forces managed to reach northern Italy and briefly besieged Aquileia—the first time in centuries that a barbarian army had reached Italian soil. This created genuine alarm throughout the empire.

New legions were raised despite manpower shortages caused by the plague. Marcus even enlisted gladiators and armed slaves when regular recruits were insufficient.

To fund the war effort, Marcus did something that was again almost unheard of among emperors: He auctioned items from the imperial palace rather than increasing taxes on provinces already suffering from the plague and invasion.

Both Marcus and Lucius personally went to lead troops in the north. However, Lucius died in 169, possibly from the Antonine Plague, leaving Marcus Aurelius as the sole emperor.

For pretty much the rest of his reign and the rest of his life, Marcus was personally devoted to protecting the empire on its frontiers to the north.

From 167 to 171, the initial Roman response focused on driving invaders back across the Danube and reestablishing frontier defenses. This phase ended with significant Roman victories that forced several tribes to sue for peace.

In the second phase, which lasted from 172 to 175, Marcus adopted a more aggressive strategy, taking the war into enemy territory across the Danube. His goal appeared to be the creation of two new Roman provinces, Marcomannia and Sarmatia, to provide a deeper buffer for Italy. However, the rebellion of the Roman general Avidius Cassius in the East in 175 interrupted these plans, forcing Marcus to negotiate settlements with some tribes to free up troops.

After resolving the eastern rebellion, Marcus began a third phase in 177-180, returning to the Danube and frontier to complete his planned subjugation of the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatians.

Marcus imposed severe conditions on defeated tribes, including establishing demilitarized zones extending several kilometers from the Danube, placing Roman garrisons in tribal territories, making requirements to provide recruits for Roman auxiliary units, and demanding regular tribute payments.

Marcus appeared determined to permanently resolve the northern frontier issue. Extensive preparatory work had begun for organizing these regions into provinces for incorporation into the empire.

Marcus Aurelius died in 180 at Vindobona, which is modern Vienna, while still campaigning on the frontier. His son Commodus, who had joined him on campaign, quickly negotiated peace terms and abandoned his father’s plans for provincial expansion, preferring to return to Rome.

Marcus Aurelius had a legacy of self-sacrifice and wise rule, however, unquestionably, the worst thing he did was leave the empire to his son Commodus. Marcus is considered to be the last of the good emperors simply because Commodus was such a bad emperor.

The story of Commodus I’ll leave for another episode, but suffice it to say, many historians mark the beginning of the end of the Roman Empire with the reign of Commodus.

Everything I’ve described about Marcus Aurelius isn’t that radically different from other Roman Emperors. Wars with Parthia and Germanic tribes were pretty par for the course of the Romans.

However, I mentioned earlier that Marcus Aurelius is still influencing people today. How is that?

It actually has nothing to do with anything he did as emperor per se. During the last decade of his life, while fighting in the Marcomannic Wars, he kept a very active and personal diary.

Far from the comforts of Rome, surrounded by conflict, disease, and hardship, he used writing as a spiritual discipline—a way to anchor himself and maintain inner clarity amidst chaos.

The writings were never intended for publication or even to be seen by another human being. Rather, they served as a private journal—a place for him to practice Stoic exercises, remind himself of core principles, and maintain personal discipline amidst the immense pressures of ruling and warfare.

After his death, his writings were found and passed around for years. They were eventually published with the title Meditations.

The structure of Meditations is loose and fragmentary. It is divided into twelve books, each containing short entries that range from practical reminders to philosophical musings and deeply introspective thoughts. The tone is often self-critical, revealing a man struggling to live according to the Stoic ideals of virtue, reason, and acceptance of fate.

Themes such as the brevity of life, the inevitability of death, the importance of rationality, and the need to remain just and composed recur throughout the work. Rather than presenting a formal philosophy, Marcus uses the journal to reaffirm values like humility, endurance, and the importance of fulfilling one’s duties as a human being and as an emperor.

What makes Meditations especially powerful is its raw, human quality. It is not the voice of a distant philosopher but of a man trying, day by day, to be better—grappling with fatigue, anger, loss, and responsibility. The writing is deeply personal yet universally resonant, offering timeless insight into how to live with integrity and purpose. Over the centuries, this private notebook has become one of the most revered works of philosophy, offering a glimpse into the inner life of one of history’s most thoughtful leaders.

His Meditations have had an enduring impact far beyond what Marcus Aurelius could have imagined. This personal philosophical diary became one of the most significant texts of Stoicism and has influenced thinkers from Christian theologians to modern psychologists.

Many people today still turn to his words for wisdom and consolation in times of personal and social crisis.

Despite being written over 1800 years ago, the writings of Marcus Aurelius are still in print today. Because it is in the public domain, copies of Meditations can be downloaded freely online, and there are cheap physical copies available at most bookstores.

Perhaps Marcus’s most profound legacy is the example of someone striving to live virtuously despite wielding enormous power—attempting to align his actions with his principles even when faced with overwhelming pressures to compromise. As he wrote in the Meditations: “Waste no more time arguing about what a good man should be. Be one.“

This is why he is often considered to be the embodiment of Plato’s vision of a philosopher king.

His life reminds us that philosophy isn’t merely an intellectual exercise but a practical guide for living—a reminder as relevant today as it was in the second century.

The Executive Producer of Everything Everywhere Daily is Charles Daniel. The Associate Producers are Austin Oetken and Cameron Kieffer.

Today’s review comes from listener Qwerty80001 over on Apple Podcasts in the United States. They write.

I like the show, Gary

The show is good. It’s fun to listen to random subjects so I’m not late for school because I watched TV.
Keep up the good work.

Thanks, Qwerty! I might be a bit biased in the matter, but I feel confident in saying that time spent listening to this show is almost always going to be more useful and more productive than watching TV.

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