The Islamic Caliphates

Podcast Transcript

After the Prophet Mohammed’s death in 632, his followers faced a dilemma. Mohammed was not only their spiritual leader but also their political leader.

While no one could replace Mohammed, they still needed a leader for their community.

The result was the creation of the position of the caliph, or “successor.” A series of caliphs ruled the Islamic world for centuries, and they left an indelible mark on the world today.

Learn more about the Islamic Caliphates and how they ruled the Islamic world on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.

I’ve had many episodes where I’ve referenced various Islamic caliphates throughout history.

However, despite all the mentions they’ve received, I’ve never had an episode developed specifically about them or really explaining what the institution of the Caliph was.

So in this episode, I want to do that. I want to provide a brief description of all of the major and minor caliphates in history and explain how the position of caliph was established and how the position was transferred from caliphate to another.

This is important because, for many centuries, the caliphates were perhaps the most powerful empires on Earth, and they were also the epicenter of science and learning.

The concept of a caliphate was born immediately after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632. Muhammad left no explicit instructions about succession, which led to deliberations amongst the Muslim community centered in Medina.

The need for leadership was driven by the spiritual need to preserve and propagate Islam as well as the political need to maintain unity and manage the rapidly expanding Muslim community.

Prominent companions of Mohammed gathered at a meeting known as the Saqifah of the Banu Sa’idah clan in Medina to deliberate.

The native Medinans proposed one of their own as leader, but the Meccan emigrants to Medina emphasized the need for leadership who was a member of the Prophet’s tribe.

The group nominated Abu Bakr, a close companion and father-in-law of Muhammad, known for his piety and wisdom. The assembly accepted his nomination, and he was pledged allegiance as the first caliph.

The word caliph comes from the Arabic word Khal?fah, which means successor.

The Saqifah was a very controversial event in Islamic history because the meeting excluded many of Mohammed’s companions, particularly his family and, most importantly, his son-in-law and cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib.

This disagreement over the legitimacy of leadership created the foundational divide between Sunni Muslims, who upheld Abu Bakr’s election, and Shia Muslims, who viewed Ali as the rightful successor.

Abu Bakr became the first caliph of the first caliphate, which became known as the Rashidun Caliphate. Rashdun means “rightly-guided”, but the term is usually not used by Shia Muslims who do not regard the first caliphs as legitimate.

The Rashidun Caliphate was rather short-lived compared to the others that followed, but it was extremely important.

It expanded rapidly through conquests in the Arabian Peninsula, Levant, Persia, and North Africa.

It only lasted for 29 years, from 632 to 661.

Abu Bakr ruled for just two years before dying of illness. He was replaced by his appointed successor Umar. Umar reigned for 10 years and before his death appointed a committee to select his successor, who selected the caliph Uthman.

Uthman ruled for 12 years before being assassinated. His successor was Mohammed’s son-in-law and cousin, and the one many believed should have been appointed caliph in the first place, Ali.

Ali’s leadership was contested, particularly by Uthman’s relatives from the powerful Umayyad clan, who demanded justice for Uthman’s murder. This opposition led to the First Fitna or civil war, including the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin. Ali also moved the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Kufa in what is today Iraq.

In 661, Ali was assassinated, and his son Hasan ceded power to Muawiya, the governor of Syria and leader of the Umayyad clan.

This marked the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate, transitioning the caliphate to a hereditary monarchy under the control of the Umayyad clan.

The Umayyad Caliphate was the second great Islamic caliphate. It reigned for 89 years.

It is noted for its territorial expansion from Spain in the west to the Indus River in the east. It established Arabic as the administrative language and introduced a centralized bureaucracy. It also built iconic structures like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

They also moved the capital to Damascus.

While the Umayyad Caliphate managed to last longer than the Rashidun Caliphate, it still wasn’t long for this world, historically speaking.

The Abbasid Revolution, which took place from 746 to 750, was a significant uprising that overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate and established the Abbasid Caliphate.

Rooted in widespread discontent with Umayyad rule, it was fueled by grievances from non-Arab Muslims over discrimination, as well as opposition from Shia factions and other marginalized groups. The Abbasids, claiming descent from Muhammad’s uncle Abbas, united these factions and leveraged support from the eastern provinces, particularly Khorasan, which today is part of Iran, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan.

The revolution culminated in the decisive Battle of the Zab, where the Umayyads were defeated. The Abbasids established their capital in Baghdad, signaling a new era of inclusivity and cultural flourishing in the Islamic world.

The first caliph of this new Caliphate was Abu al-‘Abbas as-Saffah.

Unlike the previous two caliphates, the Abbasid Caliphate was long-lasting. It survived for 767 years…..sort of.

When you think of the Golden Age of Islam, you almost always think of the Abbasid Caliphate period.

It is renowned for its contributions to Islamic culture, governance, and science, marking a golden age in Islamic history.

One of its most remarkable contributions was establishing the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from diverse backgrounds translated and preserved Greek, Persian, and Indian texts.

This effort spurred advancements in various fields, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. Figures like Al-Khwarizmi, the father of algebra, and Ibn al-Haytham, a pioneer in optics, were among those whose work flourished under Abbasid patronage. Additionally, arts and literature thrived, producing enduring works like One Thousand and One Nights.

Politically, the Abbasids centralized governance with an efficient bureaucracy led by viziers, creating a model for subsequent Islamic states. They unified the diverse empire through systems of taxation, postal routes, and standardized coinage.

Unlike their predecessors, the Abbasids promoted inclusivity, integrating non-Arabs into government and society, which helped to strengthen their rule. Baghdad emerged as a global hub of trade, culture, and learning, earning its reputation as one of the greatest cities of the medieval world. Other cities like Samarra, Cairo, and Nishapur also flourished under Abbasid influence.

Several notable rulers defined the Abbasid era. Al-Mansur reigned from 754 to 775, founded the city of Baghdad, and laid the groundwork for centralized administration. Harun al-Rashid ruled from 786 to 809 and presided over the caliphate’s cultural zenith. His son, Al-Ma’mun, was a champion of science and philosophy, advancing intellectual pursuits through the House of Wisdom.

The end of the Golden Age is usually dated as 1258, with the Mongol sack of Baghdad, a topic I covered in a previous episode.

The Mongols, led by Hulagu Khan, captured Baghdad, executing Caliph Al-Musta’sim and devastating the city. It was one of the bloodiest events in world history.

This catastrophic event ended the Abbasids’ central authority and left the Islamic world without a caliph for the first time since the institution’s founding.

During this interregnum, the fragmented Muslim world struggled to fill the void of leadership. Regional powers like the Mamluks in Egypt and the Seljuks in Anatolia gained prominence. The Mamluks, a rising military dynasty in Cairo, were particularly motivated to restore the caliphate to legitimize their rule.

In 1261, just three years after the sack of Baghdad, the Mamluks reestablished the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo, inviting a surviving member of the Abbasid family to assume the title of caliph. While this “shadow” Abbasid Caliphate held no real political power, it served as a spiritual and symbolic authority under the protection of the Mamluks, legitimizing their rule and maintaining the continuity of the caliphate as a religious institution.

This arrangement lasted until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517.

This brings us to the fourth and final of the great caliphates, the Ottoman Caliphate.

The Ottomans existed as an empire and a kingdom since at least 1299.

Under Sultan Selim I, the Ottomans launched a campaign to solidify their control over key Islamic territories, culminating in the capture of Cairo. The last Abbasid caliph, Al-Mutawakkil III, who held a largely ceremonial role under Mamluk protection, was taken to Constantinople along with members of his court.

Selim I, already the ruler of vast territories encompassing much of the Muslim world, including Mecca and Medina, now positioned himself as the custodian of Islam’s holiest sites. This role, combined with the Abbasid lineage’s symbolic transfer of authority, allowed Selim to claim the title of caliph, marking the Ottomans as the spiritual and temporal leaders of the Muslim world.

While the exact process of the caliphate’s transfer is debated what is clear is that the Ottomans embraced the caliphate as a means of legitimizing their rule over a diverse empire and uniting the Islamic world under their leadership.

The Ottoman rulers kept the title caliph for over 500 years. They held the title until the 20th century, when the institution and title were abolished by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924.

These four caliphates, the Rashidun, the Umayyad, the Abbasid, and the Ottoman, are considered to be the four major caliphates in Islamic history. All four of these follow some sort of lineal transfer of the title from one to another, and all four held significant amounts of territory at one time.

That being said, other, smaller governments also used the term caliphate.

The Fatimid Caliphate, which lasted from 909 to 1171, was a Shia caliphate that originated in North Africa and later established its capital in Cairo, Egypt. Claiming descent from Fatimah, the daughter of Prophet Muhammad, it rivaled the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate and ruled over parts of North Africa, Egypt, and the Levant.

Known for founding Cairo and Al-Azhar University, a major center of Islamic learning, the Fatimids promoted art, science, and architecture. Their decline was marked by internal strife and military defeats, culminating in their overthrow by Saladin, who founded the Ayyubid dynasty.

The Fatimid Caliphate is sometimes considered a major caliphate because of the amount of territory they held and because the ruling dynasty could claim a direct descendant from Mohammed. However, it was more of a splinter off the main lineal line of the four caliphates I mentioned.

The Idrisid Caliphate existed for a little under two centuries, from 788 to 974. Its capital was in Fez, Morocco, and it had the distinction of being the first Shia caliphate.

The Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba existed from 929 to 1031. It was an offshoot of the original Umayyad Caliphate, which controlled the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula for about 100 years.

The Almohad Caliphate lasted for just 48 years, from 1121 to 1269. Its capital was in Marrakech, and it ruled much of North Africa and southern Spain.

The Caliphate of Granada, which ruled from 1238 to 1492, was the last Muslim state in Spain. It became a cultural and architectural hub, known for the construction of the Alhambra. Granada served as a vassal state to Christian kingdoms for much of its history, paying tribute to maintain autonomy. Its fall to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Spain and the end of the Reconquista.

The Sokoto Caliphate claimed to be a caliphate in West Africa from 1804 to 1903. They were eventually defeated by the British.

For almost 1500 years, the various caliphates ruled much of the Islamic world. From their initial conquests, to the preservation and advancement of science and learning in the Islamic Golden Age, the legacy of the caliphates can easily still be seen in the world today.