A Brief History of Timor-Leste

Podcast Transcript

Located in the Indonesian Archipelago, it is one of the newest countries in the world, Timor-Leste, or, as it’s sometimes known in English, East Timor.

While geographically very close, and pretty much surrounded by Indonesia, Timor-Leste has had a history very different from Indonesia.

Their histories diverged when they became colonized by different countries and came to a head in the late 20th century.

Learn more about Timor-Leste and its long painful path to independence on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.

I’m guessing that most of you are probably not familiar with the nation of Timor-Leste. If you have heard of it, you have probably just heard of it and don’t know much about it.

Timor-Leste isn’t a very big country. It ranks 152nd in the world by population with a bit under 1.4 million people, and 154th in the world by area, at 14,874 square kilometers or 5,743 square miles.

Geographically, it is part of the Indonesian Archipelago. It is mostly located on the east end of the island of Timor, which is on the eastern end of the chain known as the Sunda Islands.

There is also a small exclave of Timor-Leste called Oecusse (oy-coo-say) which is on the western side of the island.

It is due north of the Northernmost point of the state of Western Australia.

One of the most interesting facts about the country is that the name “Timor” comes from the Malay and Indonesian word timur, which means “east.” The island was named this way because it is located on the eastern side of the Indonesian archipelago.

Leste means “east” in Portugese. So, Timor-Leste literally means “east-east.”

Ethnically, the people of Timor-Leste are the same as those who live in West Timor, Indonesia.

So, if the people there are ethnically the same as the other people on the island, and if they are geographically on the same island, then why is Timor-Leste a separate country?

That is really the crux of this entire episode.

Archaeological evidence suggests human habitation on Timor dates back at least 42,000 years, with early settlers likely arriving during periods of lower sea levels when land bridges connected parts of the island to Southeast Asia. The earliest known archaeological site is at Lene Hara cave in the eastern end of the island, containing rock art and artifacts dating to around 30,000-35,000 years ago.

The indigenous population of Timor primarily belongs to Austronesian and Papuan ethnolinguistic groups:

The Atoni people dominated the western portions.
The Tetum people established themselves in the central regions.
The Mambai, Kemak, Galoli, Baikeno, and other groups occupied various territories across the island.

Linguistic evidence suggests at least two major migration waves.

An earlier arrival of Papuan-speaking peoples, possibly 7,000+ years ago, and a later Austronesian migration which took place approximately 4,000-3,000 years ago.

Pre-colonial Timor was organized into numerous small kingdoms and chiefdoms called “reinos”, a Portuguese term later applied to these entities.

These political units were hierarchical societies led by

Liurai, who were kings or chiefs who claimed divine ancestry

Dato, who were nobles who served as regional administrators and advisors

…and Ema reino, who were commoners who formed the bulk of the population.

Each reino typically controlled a specific territory centered around a sacred house that served as both a political and spiritual center. Marriage alliances between royal houses created complex networks of allegiance and obligation.

Before colonization, the island was never unified under a single ruler. Instead, fluid alliances and rivalries created a dynamic political landscape in which power frequently shifted between competing realms.

Before the Europeans arrived, Timor was part of an extensive regional trading network which had links as far as India and China using Malay and Javanese traders who acted as middlemen.

Timor known for its sandalwood, which was highly prized throughout Asia.

Sandalwood is a fragrant hardwood tree native to South and Southeast Asia, known for its aromatic oil and fine-grained timber. It was highly prized in China, India, and the Middle East for use in incense, perfumes, traditional medicine, and religious rituals, making it a valuable commodity in regional trade networks.

Everything changed on the island of Timor in the 16th century.

Portuguese traders first arrived on Timor around 1515, drawn by the lucrative sandalwood trade.

Over time, Portuguese influence expanded, though their control remained limited to coastal areas for centuries.

For almost two centuries, it was a stop for traders and nothing more. There was no permanent presence on the island.

In 1702, the Portuguese established a formal colony on Timor and set up their capital at Lifau in present-day Oecusse (oy-coo-say), and later moved it to Dili, the current capital of Timor-Leste, in 1769.

While the Portuguese were setting up a colony on the island of Timor, the Dutch were busy colonizing pretty much everything else in the region.

The rise of the Dutch East Indies began with the expansion of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century. The Netherlands, who were rising maritime power at this time, sought to challenge Portuguese and Spanish dominance in the lucrative spice trade of Southeast Asia.

In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was established as a state-backed trading company with the authority to wage war, negotiate treaties, and establish colonies.

The Dutch initially focused on the Moluccas, aka the Spice Islands, but soon expanded to Java, Sumatra, and other parts of the archipelago. By the mid-1600s, the Dutch East India Company had defeated Portuguese and local resistance, establishing Batavia, modern-day Jakarta, in 1619 as their colonial capital. The Dutch used alliances, military force, and monopolies to dominate regional trade, particularly in nutmeg, cloves, and pepper.

One thing they did not have a monopoly on was sandalwood.

It should come as no surprise that the Portuguese and Dutch became rivals.

The Dutch worked for years to undermine the Portuguese sandalwood trade, eventually setting up their own presence on the western side of Timor.

Both Portugal and the Netherlands allied with different Timorese kingdoms to expand their influence.

The Portuguese relied on the powerful Wehale kingdom and the Catholic Church to maintain control.

The Dutch allied with Kupang and other local rulers, offering protection and trade incentives.

The division of the island led to several low-level skirmishes between the two sides for decades and into the 19th century.

In an attempt to put an end to the disputes, Portugal and the Netherlands signed the Treaty of Lisbon in 1859, which recognized West Timor as a Dutch colony and confirmed East Timor as Portuguese territory.

Unfortunately, it left some areas under disputed control, leading to continued tensions.

The 1916 Treaty of The Hague further clarified the island’s status by establishing a firm border agreement, clearly delineating Portuguese Timor in the east and Dutch Timor in the west.

The division of the island wasn’t just a political boundary. The two sides of the island followed very different cultural paths.

The Portuguese introduced Catholicism, which became deeply rooted in East Timorese society, and maintained a weak administrative presence, allowing local rulers to retain significant autonomy.

In contrast, West Timor, which the Dutch controlled, became more integrated into the larger Dutch East Indies economy and administration.

Over time, the result was a divergence in religion, politics, and to an extent, language.

The next big event in the history of the island took place in during World War II. The Japanese took over the island and over 60,000 Timorese were killed during the conflict.

When the Japanese left, it resulted a power vacuum. The Dutch had been occupied by the Germans and were in no position to be defending or even administering their colonies.

In 1945 Indonesia declared independence and in 1949 they were recognized as an independent country by the Netherlands.

West Timor, which was controlled by the Dutch, became part of the new nation of Indonesia.

East Timor, however, remained under Portuguese control.

For the most part, the Portuguese kept their remaining colonies after the war. A fascist government came to power in Portugal in 1933, and unlike other countries, it didn’t actively decolonize.

However, in April 1974, the government fell in what was known as the Carnation Revolution.

One of the top priorities of the new government was to give up its colonies immediately. In 1975, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, and Sao Tome and Principe all became independent.

In the case of East Timor, the Portuguese basically just abandoned it.

In 1974 and 75, political parties emerged in East Timor with different visions for the future. One wanted independence, one wanted continued relations with Portugal, and one wanted to join Indonesia.

After a brief civil war, the pro-independence faction gained control of most of the territory and unilaterally declared independence on November 28, 1975.

This independent Democratic Republic of East Timor lasted only nine days.

On December 7, 1975, Indonesia launched a full-scale invasion with tacit approval from Western powers, particularly the United States and Australia, who were concerned about left-leaning politics of the faction that won the civil war.

Indonesia for its part, believed that all former European possessions in the archipelago belonged to Indonesia.

The Indonesians had previously done this when they took over Dutch New Guinea in 1963 after the withdrawal of the Netherlands.

Indonesia formally annexed East Timor as its 27th province in July 1976. The occupation was marked by extreme violence and human rights abuses.

Approximately 100,000-200,000 East Timorese, out of a population of about 650,000, died due to fighting, famine, and disease

Widespread use of torture, arbitrary detention, forced displacement, and sexual violence was used in East Timor.

Perhaps the worst single incident was the Santa Cruz massacre. On November 12, 1991, Indonesian forces killed over 250 peaceful protesters at a cemetery in Dili.

Indonesia implemented “transmigration” programs to settle Indonesians in East Timor, attempted to impose the Indonesian language and culture, and restricted traditional practices. Despite these efforts, resistance continued throughout the occupation.

For over twenty-five years, East Timorese fought against the Indonesian government.

The struggle was both a military one and a diplomatic one.

Key resistance leaders included Xanana Gusmão, José Ramos-Horta, and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo. The latter two were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1996 for their work toward a peaceful resolution.

With the end of the Cold War and the international recognition of extreme human rights abuses, international support for East Timorese independence grew.

The fall of Indonesian President Suharto in 1998 created an opening for change. His successor unexpectedly offered East Timor a referendum on special autonomy within Indonesia, with independence as the alternative.

On August 30, 1999, under UN supervision, 78.5% of East Timorese voted for independence.

Following the announcement of results, pro-Indonesian militias, supported by elements of the Indonesian military, unleashed a campaign of violence that killed approximately 1,400 people, forced nearly 300,000 people into West Timor as refugees, destroyed about 70% of East Timor’s infrastructure by systematically razing towns and villages.

International pressure finally led to the deployment of an Australian-led International Force for East Timor in September 1999. The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor then governed the territory from October 1999 until independence.

East Timor officially became independent on May 20, 2002, as the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, the first new sovereign state of the 21st century.

After independence, problems didn’t disappear immediately.

In 2006, tensions within the military and police led to a security crisis requiring international peacekeepers.

There were attempted assassinations of President Ramos-Horta and Prime Minister Gusmão on the same day in 2008. I was in Dilli the day of the assassination attempts and things were crazy on the ground that morning. It is something I’ll never forget.

Timor-Leste has become more stable in the years after independence. They signed a development deal with Australia for the development of their oil fields off the coast which has become a significant source of revenue.

Nonetheless, Timor-Leste remains one of the poorest countries in Asia.

When I visited Dili in 2008, almost every building in the city had some signs of damage from the conflict, including bullet holes and missing roofs.

Its been seventeen years since I visited and I honestly would like to return to see the country in a better light.

While Timor-Leste did achieve its goal of becoming independent, it paid a terrible price.

The Executive Producer of Everything Everywhere Daily is Charles Daniel. The Associate Producers are Austin Oetken and Cameron Kieffer.

Today’s review comes from listener Actual US Citizen over on Apple Podcasts in the United States. They write.

Cumbersome Playlist

As smart as this podcast is it would be nice if the episodes (see all) were broken down to each month rather than just one long list.

Thanks, US Citizen! I totally understand your plight. However, if you are using Apple Podcasts, that is an issue with the player not the podcast. There is literally nothing I can do about how they display what you see.

Podcasts publish what is known as an RSS feed, which is just structured data with no formatting. This is the case for every podcast.

If you want to see the show episodes organized by month, then you can go over to the show’s website at everything-everywhere.com where I have every episode on a single page organized by month.

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